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Many people think of psychology as being primarily about mental health, but its story goes far beyond that.

As the science of the mind, psychology has played a pivotal role in shaping artificial intelligence, offering insights into human cognition, learning and behaviour that have profoundly influenced AI’s development.

These contributions not only laid the foundations for AI but also continue to guide its future development. The study of psychology has shaped our understanding of what constitutes intelligence in machines, and how we can address the complex challenges and benefits associated with this technology.

Machines mimicking nature

The origins of modern AI can be traced back to psychology in the mid-20th century. In 1949, psychologist Donald Hebb proposed a model for how the brain learns: connections between brain cells grow stronger when they are active at the same time.

This idea gave a hint of how machines might learn by mimicking nature’s approach.

Psychologist Frank Rosenblatt designed the perceptron in imitation of the connections in the human brain.
Frank Rosenblatt / Wikimedia

In the 1950s, psychologist Frank Rosenblatt built on Hebb’s theory to develop a system called the perceptron.

The perceptron was the first artificial neural network ever made. It ran on the same principle as modern AI systems, in which computers learn by adjusting connections within a network based on data rather than relying on programmed instructions.

A scientific understanding of intelligence

In the 1980s, psychologist David Rumelhart improved on Rosenblatt’s perceptron. He applied a method called backpropagation, which uses principles of calculus to help neural networks improve through feedback.

Backpropagation was originally developed by Paul Werbos, who said the technique “opens up the possibility of a scientific understanding of intelligence, as important to psychology and neurophysiology as Newton’s concepts were to physics”.

Rumelhart’s 1986 paper, coauthored with Ronald Williams and Geoffrey Hinton, is often credited with sparking the modern era of artificial neural networks. This work laid the foundation for deep learning innovations such as large language models.

Computer scientist Geoffrey Hinton was one of the recipients of the 2024 Nobel Prize for Physics, for his work on neural networks.
TT News Agency / EPA

In 2024, the Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Hinton and John Hopfield for work on artificial neural networks. Notably, the Nobel committee, in its scientific report, highlighted the crucial role psychologists played in the development of artificial neural networks.

Hinton, who holds a degree in psychology, acknowledged standing on the shoulders of giants such as Rumelhart when receiving his prize.

Self-reflection and understanding

Psychology continues to play an important role in shaping the future of AI. It offers theoretical insights to address some of the field’s biggest challenges, including reflective reasoning, intelligence and decision-making.

Microsoft founder Bill Gates recently pointed out a key limitation of today’s AI systems. They can’t engage in reflective reasoning, or what psychologists call metacognition.

In the 1970s, developmental psychologist John Flavell introduced the idea of metacognition. He used it to explain how children master complex skills by reflecting on and understanding their own thinking.

Decades later, this psychological framework is gaining attention as a potential pathway to advancing AI.

Fluid intelligence

Psychological theory is increasingly being applied to improve AI systems, particularly by enhancing their capacity for solving novel problems.

For instance, computer scientist François Chollet highlights the importance of fluid intelligence, which psychologists define as the ability to solve new problems without prior experience or training.

An example question from a test of ‘fluid intelligence’ designed by Francois Chollet.
ARC Prize

In a 2019 paper, Chollet introduced a test inspired by principles from cognitive psychology to measure how well AI systems can handle new problems. The test – known as the Abstract and Reasoning Corpus for Artificial General Intelligence (ARC-AGI) – provided a kind of guide for making AI systems think and reason in more human-like ways.

In late 2024, OpenAI’s o3 model demonstrated notable success on Chollet’s test, showing progress in creating AI systems that can adapt and solve a wider range of problems.

The risk of explanations

Another goal of current research is to make AI systems more able to explain their output. Here, too, psychology offers valuable insights.

Computer scientist Edward Lee has drawn on the work of psychologist Daniel Kahneman to highlight why requiring AI systems to explain themselves might be risky.

Kahneman showed how humans often justify their decisions with explanations created after the fact, which don’t reflect their true reasoning. For example, studies have found that judges’ rulings fluctuate depending on when they last ate — despite their firm belief in their own impartiality.

Lee cautions that AI systems could produce similarly misleading explanations. Because rationalisations can be deceptive, Lee argues AI research should focus on reliable outcomes instead.

Technology shaping our minds

The science of psychology remains widely misunderstood. In 2020, for example, the Australian government proposed reclassifying it as part of the humanities in universities.

As people increasingly interact with machines, AI, psychology and neuroscience may hold key insights into our future.

Our brains are extremely adaptable, and technology shapes how we think and learn. Research by psychologist and neuroscientist Eleanor Maguire, for example, revealed that the brains of London taxi drivers are physically altered by using a car to navigate a complex city.

As AI advances, future psychological research may reveal how AI systems enhance our abilities and unlock new ways of thinking.

By recognising psychology’s role in AI, we can foster a future in which people and technology work together for a better world. Läs mer…

I like to read poetry on long flights. I think it’s the climbing motion of the plane against the constant roar of the engine that creates a space for words to hum and move. But poetry can connect us to home, even when we are distant, away, sky high.

Mark the Dawn by Jazz Money and Refugia by Elfie Shiosaki are two new collections of poetry by Indigenous authors, who embed, as if in soil, words for cultural understanding, words that echo deeper than the archives.

Review: Mark the Dawn – Jazz Money (University of Queensland Press) & Refugia – Elfie Shiosaki (Magabala)

What I enjoyed most about reading these two collections together is seeing how Money and Shiosaki have their own unique way with words – differing in texture, configuration, patterns and rhymes. Yet both write so sharply about the pressing themes of land acknowledgement and sovereignty. They attack the monsters of colonial invasion and mass incarceration with the power of love and its reverberations of hope.

Mark the Dawn

Alexis Wright has praised Money’s Mark the Dawn for its intelligence and effortless movement from one poem to the next. The collection has a message that echoes Wright’s novel Carpentaria (2006): “A nation chants but we know your story already.”

Money moves the reader seamlessly through a range of emotions, identifying cultural lessons with every step, angling the shapes of the words on the page to reflect her themes. The poem titled Our Abundance As Though It Was Honey, for example, is spread across the page like honey on toast before the words drip down the page to finish: “how it is carried […] since the first fires made us”.

Other poems, like Strike the Sparks, begin with stars, igniting the words, which are arranged into the shape of a flame. Money stokes her poetry like a fire and finishes with a flicker: “you say gone, we say forever, as we rise from the smoking earth”.

Similarly, The Balance of Shadow is a poem with parallel lines on either side of the page, which seem to shadow each other. Some of the more unusual shapes in this collection become tiny icons, such as the flowers and breasts formed in the poem Mardi Gras Rainbow Dreaming.

Money’s work is distinctive in the way her words and their shapes invite you into a poetic understanding of who and where we are. Acknowledgements of country have become contentious all over the world, criticised as the tokenistic or clichéd displays of non-Indigenous people. In Canada, where I touched down while reading these collections, I met many who were critical of the performative nature of such acknowledgements. Money points out how often whitefellas get acknowledgements of country wrong:

They say before we begin I’d like to pay my respects not understanding that there isn’t a time before it begins.

In the section titled Into the Still Air, Money reminds us of the importance of acknowledging elders past, present and emerging. But the poems in this section go beyond a simple acknowledgement. They highlight how poetics can contibute to meaningful approaches to acknowledging Country and traditional custodians.

Money marvels for example “at shadows writ upon those dreams by those who walk here still”. She demonstrates how poetry and prose can work together to create a meaningful connection to the power of Country. “There is a rhythm to resistance,” she writes, “there is a sound to legacy.”

And so, since returning home, I have been reciting Money’s poems as part of my own duties to acknowledge Country. I have recited some of them before meetings and workshops, and noticed how people tend to look into the distance a little differently. I am starting to see differently too, like peering from a plane’s window and marvelling at how the land looks from a new point of view.

Mark the Dawn finishes with a circular stamp, sealing its close: “It’s Always Been Always”.

Refugia

Elfie Shiosaki is a Noongar and Yawuru poet. Her collection Refugia is a tribute to the continuity of boodja (Country) and the refuge it gives us all.

The book has three sections: Bend, Break, and Bud. Shiosaki uses landscapes and skyscapes as settings for her work, but goes further to include outer space. As her first poem suggests, the collection means to invigorate A Galaxy of Stories.

“A story is where we begin,” Shiosaki reminds us. She also reminds us, like Money, that a story is where we should begin: with an understanding that the lands on which we live and work were never ceded.

Refugia is different to Money’s collection, in that it includes images, maps and photographs of documents that undermine the authority of colonial officialdom. It combines its creative effort with rigorous research, including references and a page of endnotes to support its ideas. The only thing the colonial archives could ever represent, Shiosaki suggests, is “that it never had to be this way”.

The shapes of words on the page are played with. Shiosaki underlines for emphasis and crosses out to mark corrections to Australia’s Black history. In a paradoxical manoeuvre, she points to the ways in which words on paper can be as meaningless as they are meaningful. For example, she mocks the colonial documents that inscribed laws pertaining to land ownership and the protection of Indigenous people.

Yet Shiosaki also shows how contemporary poetry can undo a historical text simply by evoking feelings of resistance and survival, when she challenges “a piece of paper purported to be nationhood; a story now purported to be history”.

Colonial history has created what we have come to know, in Shiosaki’s words, as “uncommon wealth”. It has left many impoverished and incarcerated on their own lands. Shiosaki is critical of Australia’s colonial past, as she catches a “train to Kew Gardens” to continue her research into the settlers’ empire – research that is making her ears burn with “heat and light”. But she is also hopeful. Before the section titled Break, she writes:

My hope for us is that we know when to hop off the ride; to forgive the past; before we break into uncountable pieces of swirling grief.

Similarly, before the section titled Bud begins, Shiosaki claims to “sing for regeneration”. This final section cleanses. It proclaims peace and forgiveness, soaking us to the bone with rhyming words, cultivating new truths that “spring from the soil”. The last poem imagines a life that can “rise above the colony; rise into stars”. It evokes peace, not expansion; a sense of family, not empire.

Of course, both of these collections point to the work that is still to be done. Money and Shiosaki both write, for example, about the over-representation of Indigenous people in prison. Shiosaki mentions “police brutality” and “solitary confinement” and how Wadjemup – “the oldest prison in Western Australia” – is “paradise rebuilt as misery in 1838”. She decries Wadjemup as “an embryo for a monster reborn as Banksia Hill Detention Centre”. Money’s prose poem Listen Up, Bub decries putting people in prison for “being poor or being sick!”

The penal colony is a monster that can only be slayed with intellectual prowess and poetic sharpness, which both of these writers possess. They show how this work of resistance is embedded in a poetry that looks beyond the present, understanding the notion of it always being always. Läs mer…

Remember cassettes? If you’re old enough, you might remember dropping one into a player, only to have it screech at you when you pressed “play”. We’ve fixed that problem. But why would we bother?

Before the iPod came along, people recorded their favourite tunes straight from the radio. Some of us made home recordings with our sibling and grandparents – precious childhood snippets.

And a few of us even have recordings from that time we travelled to a village in Vanuatu, some 40 years ago, and heard the locals performing in a language that no longer exists.

In the field of linguistics, such recordings are beyond priceless – yet often out of reach, due to the degradation of old cassettes over time. With a new tool, we are able to repair those tapes, and in doing so can recover the stories, songs and memories they hold.

A digital humanities telescope

Our digital archive, PARADISEC (Pacific and Regional Archive for Digital Sources in Endangered Cultures) contains thousands of hours of audio – mainly from musicological or linguistic fieldwork. This audio represents some 1,360 languages, with a major focus on languages of the Pacific and Papua New Guinea.

The PARADISEC research project was started in 2003 as a collaboration between the universities of Melbourne and Sydney, and the Australian National University.

Like a humanities telescope, PARADISEC allows us to learn more about the language diversity around us, as we explained in a 2016 Conversation article.

Lubing the screech

While many of the tapes we get are in good condition and can be readily played and digitised, others need special care, and the removal of mould and dirt.

We work with colleagues at agencies such as the Solomon Islands National Museum, for whom we recently repaired a set of cassettes that were previously unplayable and just screeched. We’ll be taking those cassettes, now repaired and digitised, back to Honiara in February and expect to pick up more for further treatment.

Screeching happens when a tape is dried out and can’t move through the mechanism easily. The screeching covers the audio signal we want to capture.

In 2019, my colleague Sam King built (with the help of his colleague Doug Smith) a cassette-lubricating machine while working at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. This machine – likely the first of its kind in Australia – allowed us to play many previously unplayable tapes.

Last year, Sam built two versions of an updated machine called the LM-3032 Tape Restorator for PARADISEC, improving on the previous model. Between hand building some parts, 3D printing others and writing code for the controllers, it took him more than a year.

The 2024 LM-3032 Tape Restorator is an improved version of a model built in 2019.
Sam King

Preserving culture and heritage

The LM-3032 Tape Restorator works by applying cyclomethicone (a silicone-based solvent used in cosmetics) to the length of a tape. This leaves behind an extremely thin film of lubrication that allows smoother playback, making digitisation possible. See more details here.

Tests have shown this process has no negative long-term effects on the tape. In fact, tapes treated with this method five years ago still play without issues.

This technological wizardry allows us to salvage precious analogue recordings before it’s too late. For many languages, these may be the only known recordings – stored on a single cassette, in a single location, and virtually inaccessible. Some of the primary research records digitised by PARADISEC have survived long periods of neglect in offices, garages and attics.

The audio below is from a tape that was kept at Fitzroy Crossing in the Kimberley for 40 years. It features beautiful singing in the local Walmajarri language, with guitar accompaniment. The first seven seconds are from the untreated tape, while the rest is from the treated version.

Singing in Walmajarri, with guitar accompaniment. A side-by-side comparison of a tape treated with the LM-3032 Tape Restorator.
CC BY-NC-SA410 KB (download)

Our experience has shown community members truly value finding records in their own languages, and we’re committed to making this process easier for them.

Here’s one testimonial from E’ava Geita, Papua New Guinea’s current acting Solicitor General. In 2015, Geita was overjoyed to hear digitised records capturing PNG’s Koita language:

If only you witnessed and captured the reaction in me going through the recordings at home! It is quite an amazing experience! From feeling of awe to emotion to deep excitement! The feeling of knowing that your language has been documented or recorded in a structured way, kept safely somewhere in the world, hearing it spoken 50–60 years ago and by some people you haven’t seen but whose names you only hear in history is quite incredible. It is most heartwarming to know that it is possible to sustain the life of my language. Thank you once again for the opportunity to listen to the records.

Acknowlegement: I’d like to thank Sam King for the technical information provided in this article. Läs mer…

New Zealand’s superannuation is no longer enough to live on for the country’s retirees. Research has found people need hundreds of thousands in savings to live a comfortable life after work.

But the KiwiSaver scheme, introduced in 2007 to encourage New Zealanders to build their retirement savings, continues to be a political football. Since its creation, there have been multiple tweaks to the scheme, threatening to undermine its core purpose: supporting New Zealanders in their retirement.

In late 2024, the government proposed changes that would make it easier for KiwiSaver managers to invest in private assets.

The government says these changes could unlock billions to fund essential infrastructure or to provide capital for businesses, outcomes that could benefit the country as a whole.

But the changes required to enable investing in private assets – such as reduced transparency around fees – are concerning and may not be worth the limited benefits it would bring to KiwiSaver members.

Expanding KiwiSaver

At the moment KiwiSaver managers predominantly invest in publicly traded assets, specifically stocks and bonds.

The changes would open up KiwiSaver investors to a wide range of opportunities such as infrastructure projects (for example, toll roads), unlisted companies (KiwiBank has already been suggested by one provider) and property investments, among others.

Increasing private asset exposure from the current 2-3% of funds under management to a level similar to Australian super funds (15%+) could unlock significant investment for infrastructure or business capital.

But while there is definite appeal in using more KiwiSaver money to build roads and other essential infrastructure, the benefits to investors may be more modest.

The Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment argues private assets may increase fund returns and should reduce risk for investors by reducing fund exposure to stock and bond markets.

But to achieve these possible outcomes KiwiSaver members risk being locked into a fund provider or having their funds split across providers when they opt to move. There is also the concern that transparency around the fees being charged by managers could worsen.

Gumming up the works

The advantage of the current system of investing in publicly traded assets is that they are relatively cheap to trade, can be bought or sold quickly and their market value is constantly known.

Private assets are none of these things.

Fund managers are currently required to release your funds within ten days when you opt to switch manager. Large investments in private assets that can not be sold quickly, or even worse, may be distressed (where the value is currently significantly below what it was bought for), could create a liquidity issue for a fund if a lot of investors decide to switch.

To encourage managers to invest in private assets the proposed changes would allow your existing fund manager to hold onto a portion of your investment until private assets could be liquidated if they deemed it in your best interest.

Essentially, you may have to stay with a fund manager for an indeterminate period even if you want to change, presumably while still paying them fees on the funds they are looking after.

New Zealand’s retirees rely on KiwiSaver to top up insufficient superannuation payments.
Stramp/Shutterstock

Hiding fees

The government’s changes also suggest allowing managers to change the way the fees they report is calculated.

To encourage managers to invest in private assets, the government has proposed allowing them to exclude the costs associated with private assets from their reported fees. Why? Because private asset investing is significantly more expensive.

Managers may need to build specialised teams to evaluate private asset investments. There are substantial costs (consultants, lawyers, experts etc) incurred when evaluating these investments in the same way that a home buyer faces costs such as builder and valuer reports.

Additionally, managers will need to hire valuers periodically to reevaluate the value of the assets, resulting in more costs.

Removing private asset costs from disclosures will make it harder for New Zealanders to compare the fees on different funds.

Multiple other problems

Several other problems also exist with the plan.

The KiwiSaver market is relatively fragmented with 21 providers, nearly half of which manage less than NZ$1 billion in assets. Many private asset investments would require tens of millions, which means funds run the risk of becoming heavily exposed to just a few large investments. Only a handful of funds currently have the size to effectively use private assets to reduce investor risk.

There is also the difficulty in valuing private assets. Valuers can provide a best guess, but it will depend largely on what the market is willing to pay at the time you come to sell.

What is also unclear is how the value of private assets will be reflected in the unit prices that impact the price at which you buy into or sell out of fund. This introduces yet more opacity to a system that is currently transparent.

KiwiSaver will increasingly become a critical aspect of New Zealanders’ retirement. Changes to it need to be carefully considered and evaluated to avoid undermining confidence in KiwiSaver and to ensure that they support the primary goal, ensuring financial security in retirement. It is not clear that this change meets that threshold. Läs mer…

As we settle into the new year, one meeting often weighs heavily on the minds of employees: the performance appraisal review. For some, it’s a time of validation and recognition, while for others, it brings a mix of anticipation and uncertainty.

These meetings are a common practice in human resource management and are an important part of the performance management process. Despite some debates on the effectiveness of these systematic assessments, they are still frequently used to help organizations evaluate employee output, provide feedback and set future goals and rewards.

With the rise of modern technologies, the dynamics of these appraisals have changed dramatically, especially in terms of manners and etiquette.

What are performance appraisal reviews?

Performance appraisals are a set of structured evaluations of employees’ job performance against set criteria and organizational goals. These evaluations are essential for managing human resources effectively. They provide insights into employee productivity, help identify training needs and align individual goals with the broader organizational mission. They also play a critical role in career development by offering feedback that helps employees understand their strengths and areas for improvement. And they are a key factor in management decisions about promotions, compensation, and sometimes, terminations.

Employee reactions to performance appraisals can vary greatly depending on multiple factors. Active participation in the appraisal process can lead to more positive perceptions of its fairness and effectiveness. Further, fair and constructive appraisals can boost employee satisfaction and commitment, whereas poorly conducted ones can lead to dissatisfaction and disengagement.

On the other hand, performance appraisals can also be a significant source of stress for employees. The anticipation of critical feedback and the high stakes associated with these evaluations can induce anxiety and tension. In fact, some studies suggests that performance appraisals contribute to employee burn-out.

This stress-inducing aspect of appraisals can greatly influence the manners, attitudes and behaviors of employees during these meetings.

The influence of modern technologies on manners and etiquette

In the last few years, especially during the Covid pandemic, modern technologies have transformed performance appraisal reviews. Video conferencing and communication tools integrated into performance management software have made remote and flexible appraisals possible. These tools have significantly altered communication styles, shifting the focus to digital interactions that often lack non-verbal cues. Some behavioral scientists even noted that while online communication was essential during the pandemic, it lacks the richness of face-to-face interaction, which can affect the clarity and warmth of communication.

Netiquette, or Internet etiquette, consists of the polite behaviors expected in online communications. The importance of netiquette in performance appraisals is basically to ensure clear and respectful communication. Adhering to netiquette helps maintain a professional tone and reduces the risk of misunderstandings in virtual settings.

So while digital communication has led to new norms and expectations for politeness, clarity and respect remain crucial factors. Without physical presence, explicit expressions of politeness and consideration are more important than ever, helping to replicate the nuances of face-to-face communication in a virtual environment.

Theoretical perspectives on manners and etiquette

The late sociologist Norbert Elias’s theories offer a historical perspective on how manners and societal norms evolve. In his book, The Civilizing Process, Elias traces the development of manners from medieval times to the modern era, arguing that societal norms become more regulated and refined over time. This process involves both sociogenetic aspects, which concern social changes over long periods, and psychogenetic ones, which concern the internalization of social norms.

Elias’s theories can also help us understand how manners and etiquette in modern organizations are evolving. His ideas have been shown to apply to organizational behavior, highlighting the importance of self-regulation and refinement in professional settings. As performance appraisals become more formalized, they reflect broader societal trends in these directions.

Further applying Elias’s civilizing process to the digital age involves understanding how manners and etiquette adapt to technological advancements. Developing new norms for digital behavior helps maintain respectful and effective communication; netiquette is a contemporary extension of the civilizing process. As performance appraisals increasingly move online, adhering to netiquette helps ensure positive and constructive experiences.

Implications for performance appraisals

Modern technologies have blurred the traditional boundaries of place, time and organization, affecting employee behavior and manners. These changes challenge traditional notions of hierarchy and authority, encouraging more egalitarian and flexible interactions. This shift requires employees to adapt to the new culture of organizations. Observing the netiquette guidelines that follow can significantly enhance the online appraisal experience for both employees and managers.

Preparation as self-regulation: Testing the Internet connection, camera and microphone reflects Elias’s concept of internalized norms as self-regulatory practices that enhance interactions. Creating a quiet, well-lit space shows respect for the meeting and fosters a focused environment.

Professional presentation: Dressing appropriately and using a distraction-free background reflect Elias’s view of manners as societal refinement markers. A clean, professional setup conveys respect for the occasion and the participants.

Simulated social cues: Making eye contact by looking at the camera, maintaining good posture, and using natural gestures to recreate in-person cues help make for effective communication.

Clarity of speech: Speaking clearly and avoiding vague terminology aligns with Elias’s view that refined language is essential for civilized interactions. Clarity helps overcome the comparative lack of non-verbal cues in virtual settings.

Time management: Joining the meeting a few minutes early and silencing notifications reflect Elias’s ideals of punctuality and order, showing respect for everyone’s time.

Follow-up: A thank-you message after the appraisal supports Elias’s civilizing process by reinforcing professional gratitude and respect.

If your next performance appraisal review is scheduled online, consider these straightforward yet impactful practices. Thoughtful netiquette – when adopted by both managers and employees – can create a respectful, clear and productive virtual appraisal experience, making a real difference on how feedback is communicated and received. Läs mer…

Between 2015 and 2024, more than 8,000 women were killed in Mexico because of their gender.

These crimes are referred to as femicides and, unlike homicides, are not the consequence of private or personal disputes. Instead, they are the result of a culture of oppression and domination that historically has targeted women and perpetuated a patriarchal society.

While the number of femicides has decreased in recent years, there has not been any significant decline, and it remains a serious crisis. According to government data, around 10 women and girls across Mexico are killed every day by intimate partners or other family members. Worsening the crisis is Mexico’s systemic impunity, with many crimes going unreported or uninvestigated, and unreliable data masking the true scale of this problem.

As a result, femicides in Mexico have been described as “another pandemic” — one driven by a deeply embedded machismo culture of violence against women, combined with a lack of transparency and justice from the state.

In response to this crisis, protests led by feminist groups have gained increasing attention in recent years. They have urged Mexican society to recognize the severity of this problem and called on authorities to act. However, the polarized political climate in Mexico has undermined the demands of these demonstrations.

Polarization shaped public conversation

My doctoral research focused on examining the political and public discourse surrounding protests against gender-based violence in Mexico. More specifically, my work analysed how polarizing narratives, especially on social media platforms, affected these demonstrations.

In 2020, feminist collectives organized the annual International Women’s Day march alongside a silent strike called #UnDiaSinNosotras (#ADayWithoutUs) in which women abstained from all public activities for an entire day.

While the support for these protests grew, even from conservative groups traditionally opposed to feminist ideals, speculations emerged about the movement being used opportunistically to undermine the left-wing federal government.

Initially, then-president Andrés Manuel López Obrador expressed solidarity with feminist groups. However, after refusing to revise his strategy on femicide, he warned that conservative elements could be infiltrating the protests. This created an unusual scenario where conservative groups backed feminist demands while the left-wing federal government dismissed them.

Such a turbulent political climate raises several questions: Did conservative groups suddenly embrace progressive feminist ideals? Did feminist groups align with conservatives despite historically opposing their ideas? Did the left-wing government adopt conservative positions to counter feminist movements? More importantly, how did this scenario impact the calls of the protests against femicide?

A fluid polarization

Polarization is typically framed as a stark and often stagnant political divisions between two dominant and opposing narratives. However, the interactions produced in scenarios like Mexico’s feminist protests suggest more fluid dynamics.

Rather than a rigid conflict between two opposing sets of ideals, polarization here should been seen as a relationship between narratives that are constantly reshaped and defined by each other.

This can be observed in how the narratives aligned with the federal government and those opposing it demonstrated apparent contradictions based on the other’s positioning regarding the protests.

Red crosses with the Spanish word ‘Justice’ hang on the fence of the National Palace where they were placed by demonstrators holding an event coined a national mourning against femicides in the Zocalo of Mexico City, May 18, 2022.
(AP Photo/Fernando Llano)

Following this, it can be interpreted that conservative groups backed the protests as a way of reinforcing their opposition to the government. Similarly, the left-wing governing party, typically associated with more progressive ideals, appeared as dismissive of the protests and their demands to distance itself from perceived conservative influences.

Viewing polarization this way helps explain how unlikely allies find themselves on the same side of particular issues. In this context, polarization is less about fixed beliefs and values and more about maintaining a distinct identity relative to the opposing side. In essence, polarization becomes an exercises in being as opposed as possible to the other side.

Obscuring social issues

My analysis of social media comments about the protests revealed they centred on two themes: debates on whether the feminist movement was being co-opted by conservative forces and criticism of López Obrador and his administration.

In both cases, the discussions shifted away from the urgent issue of femicides, ignoring the protests’ central calls. Moreover, these conversations reinforced existing political divisions rather than addressing the root problem. This way, the interplay between the narratives involved created a polarized environment in which political rivalries overshadowed meaningful discussion of the structural violence against women.

In other words, polarized dynamics can obscure urgent and immediate social issues, contributing to impunity and a lack of action.

The Mexican political landscape reveals how forms of violence and oppression can be reproduced and reinforced through the interactions happening around them. In this sense, addressing femicides requires not only structural modifications to current strategies but also changing how this issue is discussed.

It’s also essential to recognize how polarization, as a fluid dynamic, shapes the public space. Doing this can provide insights into how meaningful action can happen in the context of today’s social and political debates framed by stark perceived divisions. Läs mer…

The higher education sector continues to grapple with the advent of generative artificial intelligence (genAI), with much of the concern focused on ethical issues around student misconduct.

GenAI models such as ChatGPT offer students untraceable and economic means of churning out answers and term papers on any given subject.

For many instructors, this means traditional forms of course evaluation are now ineffective. The question that faculty and administration across the sector are asking is: how can we effectively assess and evaluate student competence on a given subject?

An equally significant question that needs to be asked — but remains relatively absent in current discussion — is the following: what existing conditions in higher education are shaping the scale and nature of the impact of genAI on learning?

As I argue in a recent article in the Journal of Interactive Technology and Pedagogy, widespread use of genAI among students needs to be understood as reflecting economic, structural and learning conditions specific to post-secondary education today.

This is not to justify violations of academic integrity codes. Rather, it is to emphasize that only by considering the realities of their milieu can educators contemplate more critical and engaged learning. It is also to underscore that this problem begs more systemic reforms.

The context

Since the mid-1980s, a political ideology that values the free market and the deregulation of government services has continued to inform federal and provincial levels of government — neoliberalism.

Read more:
What exactly is neoliberalism?

In this context of deregulation, higher education has been undergoing what can be described as a “neoliberal turn.” This has happened as successive governments have either initiated or tacitly allowed for consistent funding cuts to public services in the education, health-care and social-service sectors.

In Ontario, while provincial funding made up 78 per cent of university operating revenue in the 1987-88 fiscal year, by 2022 it made up only 24 per cent.

Similar trends have been identified for federal and provincial government funding for higher education across the country, which is in steady decline as revenues from tuition fees continue to make up an increasing share.

Strikers walk the picket line at Mount Allison University in Sackville, N.B., in February 2020.
THE CANADIAN PRESS/Andrew Vaughan

The impacts of neoliberal policies have, for higher education, translated into a number of effects:

The marketization of education as a private investment for individual students, as opposed to a public good, as public investment shrinks;
A rise in tuition fees and increase in student debt;
A restructuring of academic labour where casual and low-paid contract faculty now make up half the academic workforce.

A 2018 Policy Options report notes a correlation between a decrease in public funding and increased class sizes: “In 2005, just under 25 per cent of first-year Ontario university courses had more than 100 students. By 2018, that number was 32 per cent.” Large classes, the report notes, reduce opportunities for more student-faculty contact, and result in a poorer learning experience for the students.

Institutions have shifted as they increasingly adopt the competitive and cost-cutting measures needed to survive amid receding public funding.

Universities are now more “revenue-driven and expenditure-adverse,” with administrators prioritizing activities that enhance the institution’s revenue, such as research work or the securing of grants. Falling by the wayside is the practice of teaching and the education of students.

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With precarious jobs, work identities shift — including for contract academics

The impact on students

A recent report published by Wiley surveyed more than 2,000 undergraduate students at institutions of higher education in North America on the topic of academic integrity in the era of AI.

Of the students surveyed, a majority noted the role of emerging technologies, such as ChatGPT, in making it easier to cheat than before. When asked why more students may turn toward cheating, almost half responded that because education is so expensive, there is an added pressure to pass or attain certain grades.

Thirty six per cent of students said they are more willing to cheat because it is hard to balance going to school with work or family commitments.

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ChatGPT: Student insights are necessary to help universities plan for the future

Many students face significant hardships in making ends meet while the cost of living rises.
(Shutterstock)

Pressures facing students

There are innumerable pressures facing undergraduate students today. Neoliberal cuts to education have drastically increased the cost of education, and many students face significant hardships in making ends meet as wages stagnate while the cost of living rises.

When I ask my students about their employment situation, most are working part-time. Many are working full-time while juggling a full course load and some even take more than a full course load.

When larger numbers of students are batched into lecture halls, there are fewer opportunities for active student-teacher engagement, characterized by dialogue,
which is a key ingredient in fostering engaged and critical learning. In this context, should we be surprised if students feel disconnected?

In the same Wiley report, students noted they are more likely to resort to cheating if they do not sense the significance of the course material to either their own lives or to the real world.

A case for structural change

These conditions are not isolated, nor are they the flaw of only one educational institution. They reflect broader structural conditions.

The crisis spurred by concerns with student ethics or of the use of genAI to cheat on assigned work must be understood within this larger context, as opposed to being seen as emerging from features specific to genAI.

If provided with the right conditions, genAI — as with other digital learning tools like PowerPoint slides or game-based platforms — can be harnessed in the service of developing more engaged learning practices.

However, doing so will require fundamental transformations to the higher education industry, and to its existing pedagogical commitments. Läs mer…

Canada has more lakes than any other country in the world, with a huge diversity of lake sizes, depths, shapes, water chemistries, underlying geologies and hydrologies (the waters that flow in and out of them). Sediments accumulate on lake floors which, at the offshore and undisturbed depths, act as archival records.

Paleolimnology is the study of lake sediments to identify changes in climate and human activity.

When a lake develops algal blooms, fishless conditions or masses of weeds, it is difficult to determine whether this is part of the lake’s natural cycle or the result of human activities. To understand this, we need to know a lake’s history, and particularly what it was like before humans settled in the area in large numbers.

As researchers in paleolimnology, the historical study of freshwater sediments, we examine the sediments that settles at the bottom of lakes. This accumulation of both organic and inorganic matter from within and outside then lake ecosystem helps us understand the history of these lakes and how they may have changed over time.

Seeing through glass walls

One group of microbes that preserve very well in lake sediments is the diatoms. These single-celled algae have delicately ornamented cell walls, of which each species is characterized by its distinct morphology. Because diatom cell walls are comprised of opaline silica — essentially, glass — they remain preserved in sediments even after their organic components have decomposed.

Freshwater diatoms and plankton viewed under a microscope.
(Shutterstock)

The shape of diatom cell walls often reflects their habitats in the lake — whether they lived floating in the open water (planktic species) or nearer to the shoreline or lake bottom, often attached to rocks, sediments or vegetation (benthic species). Additionally, different species are adapted to distinct environments, for example high or low nutrient concentrations, different salinity levels or lake acidity. As such, we can use the diatom remains in sediments to reconstruct past lake environments.

Unfortunately, not everything that lives in lakes will be preserved, and much of the cellular material of photosynthetic microbes decomposes over time. The main photosynthetic pigment across all photosynthetic organisms is chlorophyll a, which gradually breaks down over time. However, the molecules into which it degrades are more stable.

By measuring chlorophyll a and its degradation products in lake sediments, we can get a sense of how lake primary production (the amount of photosynthetic biomass produced in the lake) has changed through time. This is done by using spectroscopy to measure how sediments absorb and reflect light, since chlorophyll a and its degradation products absorb light in specific wavelengths.

By examining changes in the diatom species combined with sedimentary chlorophyll a from different core intervals, we can infer how the fundamental “producers” at the base of the lake food web have changed over the centuries, and even millennia.

Canada’s changing lakes

Our research team examined diatoms and sedimentary chlorophyll a from more than 200 lakes across Canada as part of a large-scale sampling program known as LakePulse.

Collecting sediment cores from lake beds.
(D. Akeya), CC BY

At each lake, we collected a sediment core and samples from the upper-most and bottom-most sections of the mud were analyzed. These represented modern (deposited in the last few years) and pre-industrial (laid down more than 150 years ago, before the establishment of industrialized practices) samples. Comparing modern and pre-industrial diatoms in each lake, we found two clear patterns resulting from the impacts of direct human development and climate warming.

The first pattern was that lakes with high concentrations of agriculture or urban development surrounding them showed the biggest changes. Diatom species composition changed to forms better adapted to higher nutrients and salinity. The most pronounced changes occurred in the Prairies, which are currently characterized by intense agricultural development and relatively shallow lakes that are more susceptible to nutrient pollution.

The second pattern that we identified was a general increase in planktic diatoms. During the summer, a pattern known as thermal stratification develops in many lakes, where the upper water is heated by the sun and sits on top of colder water. As climates warm, the period during which lakes are stratified in summer has been getting longer.

Based on earlier research, we know that planktic diatoms thrive in thermally stratified, open water environments. LakePulse researchers noticed an increase of planktic diatoms in the majority of lakes across Canada regardless of the degree of human impacts, which suggested that climate change is having a marked effect on the composition of these primary producers.

Sedimentary chlorophyll a also indicated increased primary production in a majority of Canadian lakes, reflecting longer open-water periods (when most lakes show their maximum production) as ice duration decreases due to climate change.

Read more:
Climate change could alter the chemistry of deepwater lakes and harm ecosystems

Manitou Lake, Sask. is a fishless lake in western Saskatchewan that has been severely impacted by drainage for urban, industrial and agricultural purposes.
(Shutterstock)

Preserving lakes

Across Canada, the effects of climate change and human activities are changing primary producers in lake food webs. Physical conditions are also changing, with transitions towards stronger and longer periods of stratification for many lakes, and increased nutrients and salinity levels in lakes with high human impacts.

These changes can have major negative consequences. Increased algal production means that as the organisms die and settle to the lake bottom, they are decomposed, which uses up the oxygen in bottom waters. Longer stratified periods can lead to greater oxygen depletion, as the time between episodes of mixing that renew oxygen in cold bottom waters increases.

This can have devastating impacts for cold-water species, such as lake trout, that need high-oxygen cold water to survive through the summer months.

By using paleolimnology to understand how ecosystems have changed over time, we gain valuable insights into the impacts that human activity and climate change may have on Canadian lakes. This knowledge will serve to preserve the health of our freshwater resources for future generations.

Katherine Griffiths of Champlain College Saint-Lambert co-authored this article. Läs mer…

Syria’s rebel leader, Ahmed al-Sharaa, has defended his decision to fill his cabinet with wartime loyalists and delay constitutional and electoral processes, describing these moves as pragmatic necessities for the country’s fragile transition.

At the same time, he has called for the disarmament of all rival factions, especially the Kurds in northern Syria. In a recent Al-Arabiya interview, al-Sharaa outlined a vision for a presidential system, with appointed, not elected, delegates shaping Syria’s new constitution before elections could be held.

His blueprint leaves little room for international oversight, as he insisted the United Nations and foreign powers should play only a minimal role in the process.

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Syria after Assad: A fresh chance for inclusive governance and power-sharing, or more of the same?

Many observers are focusing on Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), the factional winner of Syria’s protracted war, and its troubling history of ties to al-Qaida and ISIS.

Questions abound: Will the group’s past alliances shape its governance? Can a group with such a violent legacy chart a path to inclusive peace?

These questions are vital, but my research with colleagues at the universities of Notre Dame and Pittsburgh suggests that regimes emerging from rebel victories tend to share strikingly similar governance challenges. The question isn’t just whether Syria will chart a different course — it’s whether it can defy the grim lessons of history.

Rebel victories

Rebel victories tend to follow a predictable script: a regime born of war seeks to solidify power under the guise of stability.

The Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in 1996 offers a stark example. After their military triumph, they penned a constitution in private, with input solely from Islamic scholars. No civil society entities were invited to the table. The resulting document prioritized ideology over inclusivity, and laid the groundwork for a repressive regime.

Two Taliban fighters sit in the back of their vehicle near Kabul in Afghanistan in October 1996.
(AP Photo/Santiago Lyon)

Rebel victories are not mere regime changes; they are seismic upheavals. Unlike negotiated transitions or elite-led coups, these regimes arise from violent conflict.

Our research has found that since 1946, 45 countries have experienced one or more episodes of rebel victory, leaving behind weak states with fragile institutions and deep societal divides. Governance in these situations often becomes synonymous with survival, with leaders prioritizing the consolidation of authority over fostering broad-based stability.

Cases of rebel victory underline a troubling trend: rebel leaders often use constitutional processes to centralize power rather than create institutions that can manage grievances or prevent renewed violence.

Expropriation of private property

Our research indicates that constitutions drafted by rebel regimes frequently allow for selective enforcement of property rights, granting broad powers to expropriate under vague justifications. For instance, constitutions of rebel regimes are more likely to allow the government to expropriate private property for “general public purposes,” often without compensation or legal recourse.

Former Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi in 2011 at an event in Norway. Zenawi was a former anti-Derg militant who served as president of Ethiopia from 1991 to 1995 and as prime minister from 1995 until his death in 2012.
(AP Photo/Erik Johansen/Scanpix Norway)

Most victorious rebels use constitutional changes to maintain property insecurity as a strategy for consolidating power in an uncertain environment. After the fall of the Derg regime in Ethiopia in 1991, the country’s rebel regime used constitutional provisions to expropriate land for “public use,” selectively targeting marginalized communities and dissenting regions. It consolidated power under the guise of reform while undermining property rights and economic liberalization.

While such measures may temporarily stabilize power, they also fuel grievances, erode trust in state institutions, and often sow the seeds of future conflict.

A small number of rebel regimes, however, take a different path, opting for negotiated constitutional reform. By including rival groups in the process and extending political, social and civic rights to marginalized populations, these regimes can lay the groundwork for more inclusive governance and lasting peace.

Between 1989 and 2012, 56 per cent of comprehensive peace accords included provisions for constitutional reform. Such reforms often serve as nation-building mechanisms in newly formed states, or promote peace among divided communities. By creating a written, negotiated framework for governance, constitutions incentivize non-violent engagement and provide citizens and international entities with tools to hold rebel incumbents accountable.

People pass by street vendors displaying goods for sale in the main square of Hama, Syria, on Jan. 26, 2025.
(AP Photo/Khalil Hamra)

Helping rebel regimes

There are two ways the global community can influence what happens in rebel regimes — by being punitive and/or by incentivizing. When the Taliban won in Afghanistan in 2021, the international community quickly imposed sanctions on the new rebel regime and froze Afghan assets abroad.

In our analysis, we found that sanctions and arms embargoes — examples of punitive actions — do not significantly reduce the likelihood of civil wars recurring in rebel regimes.

Instead of punitive measures, the Global North in particular should try to influence Syria’s new leaders with incentivizing measures, such as offering economic aid in exchange for peace agreements and facilitating peace-building processes.

The good news for the international community is that, unlike the Taliban, al-Sharaa has shown an openness to collaborate with the West. This presents a critical opportunity to encourage Syria’s rebel leaders to adopt inclusive governance practices, which, in the long run, will reduce the risk of renewed conflict.

Instead of calling for the complete disarmament of rival factions and drafting a new constitution solely by delegates of the rebel winners, al-Sharaa should sign a peace agreement with rival factions which includes the terms for a negotiated, inclusive constitutional reform process. Läs mer…

U.S. President Donald Trump has imposed a 25 per cent tariff on most Canadian goods. A senior governmental official said they are expected to come into effect on Feb. 4.

This tariff will have significant economic consequences on both sides of the border, as the U.S. and Canada share one of the largest bilateral trade relationships in the world.

A key concern is the highly integrated supply chains between the two countries. Many goods cross the border multiple times as intermediate inputs before becoming final products. Imposing tariffs at any point in this supply chain will raise production costs and increase prices for a wide range of goods traded between the U.S. and Canada.

For Canada, the tariffs on Canadian products will significantly affect Canada’s competitiveness in the U.S. market by driving up prices. Such tariffs could pose serious challenges for various sectors in Canada, given the country’s heavy reliance on the U.S. economy.

Effects on different sectors

The impact of U.S. tariffs on Canadian prices is likely to differ across sectors and products, depending on their reliance on the U.S. market.

Sectors with a higher dependence on U.S. trade are likely to experience more severe disruptions. If the tariffs make certain products uncompetitive, Canadian producers may struggle to secure alternative markets in the short term.

Industries such as agriculture, manufacturing and energy will experience varying degrees of impact. Energy products and motor vehicles, which represent Canada’s largest exports to the U.S., are expected to be among the most adversely affected.

Canada’s exports of different products to the U.S. in the manufacturing, agriculture and energy sectors.
(World Integrated Trade Solution)

In the agricultural and forestry sector, wood and paper products, along with cereals, are among Canada’s largest exports to the U.S., with the U.S. accounting for 86 to 96 per cent of these exports, according to data from the World Integrated Trade Solution.

In the energy and mineral sector, crude oil is Canada’s top export, reaching US$143 billion in 2023, with 90 per cent destined for the U.S. Given its critical role as Canada’s largest export across all sectors, it is not surprising that Trump has noted crude oil would subject to a lower tariff of 10 per cent.

Canada’s dependence on U.S. trade

When examining the impact on different products, it’s not only the value of trade that matters, but also the share of trade. The share of trade indicates how reliant Canada is on the U.S. compared to other markets.

A high trade share with the U.S. suggests a product is particularly vulnerable to trade disruptions, as Canada depends heavily on the U.S. market for that product. Conversely, a lower share indicates that Canada has diversified suppliers, which reduces its dependence on the U.S.

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Trump’s tariff threat could shake North American trade relations and upend agri-food trade

For instance, in 2023, Canada’s top exports to the U.S. included vehicles and parts, nuclear machinery and plastics, according to data from the World Integrated Trade Solution. The U.S. accounted for 93 per cent of vehicle and parts exports, 82 per cent of nuclear machinery exports, and 91 per cent of plastics exports.

This data highlights Canada’s extreme dependence on the U.S. market, making these industries within the manufacturing sector highly susceptible to the tariff. This could harm jobs in the manufacturing sector, which is vital to employment in Canada, providing jobs for over 1.8 million people.

Canada’s reliance on the U.S. is also evident in imports. In 2023, vehicle imports totalled US$92 billion, with the U.S. accounting for 58 per cent of that amount.

Canada’s imports of different products from the U.S. in the manufacturing, agriculture and energy sectors.
(World Integrated Trade Solution)

The dependence is also evident in the agri-food and forestry sector, where Canada heavily relies on U.S. imports. This suggests that retaliatory tariffs on agricultural goods from the U.S. could have a substantial impact on food prices in Canada.

Retaliatory tariffs and inflationary pressures

Canada has announced it’s imposing $155 billion of retaliatory tariffs on U.S. imports in response. This could contribute to inflationary pressures within Canada.

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau says this includes immediate tariffs on $30 billion worth of goods as of Tuesday, followed by further tariffs on $125 billion worth of American products in 21 days’ time to “allow Canadian companies and supply chains to seek to find alternatives.”

This will include tariffs on “everyday items such as American beer, wine and bourbon, fruits and fruit juices, including orange juice, along with vegetables, perfume, clothing and shoes,” and also on major consumer products like household appliances, furniture and sports equipment, and materials like lumber and plastics.

Given Canada’s significant dependence on U.S. imports, the retaliatory tariffs will raise the cost of American goods entering the country, further driving up consumer prices and exacerbating inflation.

In its latest policy rate announcement, the Bank of Canada warned of the severe economic consequences of Trump’s tariffs, highlighting their potential to reverse the current downward trend in inflation.

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau delivers remarks at a Canada-US relations meeting at the Ontario Investment and Trade Centre in Toronto on Jan. 31, 2025.
THE CANADIAN PRESS/Chris Young

What should Canada do now?

Canada must extend its economic diplomacy efforts beyond the Trump administration, engaging with the U.S. Congress and Senate to advocate for the reconsideration of tariffs on Canadian goods. The Canadian government should persist in leveraging this channel to push for a reversal of the tariffs. This kind of broader negotiation remains the most effective approach to mitigating trade tensions and ensuring stable economic relations with the U.S.

At the same time, Canada must reduce dependence on the U.S. market by adopting a comprehensive export diversification strategy. While the U.S. remains a convenient and accessible trade partner, expanding into emerging and developing markets would help mitigate risks and create more stable long-term trade opportunities.

Read more:
Trump’s tariff threat is a sign that Canada should be diversifying beyond the U.S.

One effective way to achieve export diversification is by expanding free trade agreements (FTAs) with emerging and developing economies. Currently, Canada has 15 FTAs covering about 51 countries, but there is room for expansion. However, signing FTAs alone is insufficient; Canada must ensure these agreements translate into tangible trade growth with partner countries.

International politics is increasingly shaping global trade, making it imperative for Canada to proactively manage diplomatic and trade relations. In recent years, tensions have emerged with key partners such as China, India and Saudi Arabia. These countries could all become potential markets for Canadian products. Given that China is Canada’s second-largest export destination, there is significant potential to expand trade ties.

Additionally, countries like the United Arab Emirates present promising markets, particularly for agricultural products, as the UAE imports about 90 per cent of its food.

U.S. President Donald Trump answers questions from reporters as he signs an executive orders in the Oval Office of the White House on Jan. 23, 2025 in Washington.
(AP Photo/Ben Curtis)

Boosting innovation and productivity

Canada stands at a critical juncture in its trade relationship with the U.S. While diplomatic efforts remain essential to averting harmful tariffs, they cannot be the country’s only line of defence.

Boosting productivity is one of the most effective ways for Canada to improve its competitiveness in global markets. Canadian producers should prioritize innovation and the adoption of advanced technologies to enhance efficiency and maintain a competitive edge, particularly as they seek to expand beyond the U.S.

In response to potential U.S. tariffs, the Canadian government should implement a bailout strategy to provide short-term relief and mitigate revenue losses to firms that will be mostly affected. Additionally, Canada should leverage its embassies and consulates worldwide to promote exports and help affected firms identify and access new market opportunities.

By doing this, Canada can position itself as a more self-reliant and competitive player in the global economy — one less vulnerable to shifting U.S. policies. Läs mer…